Abaje, I. B., Ati, O. F., & Iguisi, E. O. (2013). Droughts in the Sudano-Sahelian Ecological Zone of Nigeria: Implications for Agriculture and Water Resources Development. Global Journal of Human Social Science Geography, Geo-Sciences & Environmental, 13(2).
Abdulrahim, M., Ifabiyi, I., & Ismaila, A. (2013). Time series analyses of mean monthly rainfall for drought management in Sokoto, Nigeria. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management, 6(5), 461–470. https://doi.org/10.4314/ejesm.v6i5.3
Abdulrahim, M., Ifabiyi, I., Ismaila, A., Jibrillah, A. M., Ja’afar, M., Choy, L. K., Ahmed, A., Egwu, G. O., & Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia. (2016). MONITORING. Indonesian Journal of Geography, 9(June), 56–69. https://doi.org/10.4314/ejesm.v6i5.3
Achite, M., Krakauer, N. Y., Wałęga, A., & Caloiero, T. (2021). Spatial and temporal analysis of dry and wet spells in the Wadi Cheliff Basin, Algeria. Atmosphere, 12(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12060798
Adane, G. B., Hirpa, B. A., Lim, C. H., & Lee, W. K. (2020). Spatial and temporal analysis of dry and wet spells in the Upper Awash River Basin, Ethiopia. Water (Switzerland), 12(11), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12113051
Aditya, F., Gusmayanti, E., & Sudrajat, J. (2021). Rainfall trend analysis using Mann-Kendall and Sen’s slope estimator test in West Kalimantan. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 893(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/893/1/012006
Ajayi, V. O., & Ilori, O. W. (2020). Projected Drought Events over West Africa Using the RCA4 Regional Climate Model. Earth Systems and Environment, 4(2), 329–348.https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-020-00153-x
Al Asheikh, A. A., & Tarawneh, Q. Y. (2013). An analysis of dry spells patterns, intensity, and duration in Saudi Arabia. Middle East Journal of Scientific Research, 13(3), 314–327. https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.mejsr.2013.13.3.1864
Anandharuban, P., & Elango, L. (2021). Spatio-temporal analysis of rainfall, meteorological drought, and response from a water supply reservoir in the megacity of Chennai, India. Journal of Earth System Science, 130(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-020-01538-2
Atedhor, G. O. (2014). Growing season rainfall trends and drought intensities in the Sudano-Sahelian Region of Nigeria. FUTY Journal of the Environment, 8(1), 41–52.
Basse, J., Camara, M., Diba, I., & Diedhiou, A. (2024). Projected Changes in Dry and Wet Spells over West Africa Using a Markov Chain Approach.
Bhaga, T. D., Dube, T., Shekede, M. D., & Shoko, C. (2020). Impacts of climate variability and drought on surface water resources in sub-Saharan Africa using remote sensing: A review. Remote Sensing, 12(24), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12244184
Bora, R., Bhuyan, A., & Dutta, B. K. (2021). Analysis of Consecutive Days Maximum Rainfall Together With Dry, Wet Spell Rainfall for Crop Planning at Jorhat (Assam), India. Communications in Mathematics and Applications, 12(4), 835–851. https://doi.org/10.26713/cma.v12i4.1620
Bouagila, B., & Sushama, L. (2013). On the Current and Future Dry Spell Characteristics over Africa. 272–298. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos4030272
Breinl, K., Di Baldassarre, G., Mazzoleni, M., Lun, D., & Vico, G. (2020). Extreme dry and wet spells face changes in their duration and timing. Environmental Research Letters, 15(7). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab7d05
Caloiero, T., Coscarelli, R., Ferrari, E., & Sirangelo, B. (2015). Analysis of dry spells in southern Italy (Calabria). Water (Switzerland), 7(6), 3009–3023. https://doi.org/10.3390/w7063009
Chunming, P. (2010). Integration of Remote Sensing And Meteorological Data For George Mason University.
Diani, K., Kacimi, I., Zemzami, M., Tabyaoui, H., & Haghighi, A. T. (2019). Evaluation of meteorological drought using the Standardized Precipitation Index ( SPI ) in the High Ziz River basin, Morocco. 19(3), 125–135. https://doi.org/10.2478/limre-2019-0011
El-tantawi, A. M. M. (2013). The Effects Of Growing Season Variations On Food Crop Yields In Sokoto, NorthWestern Nigeria. Rainfall is a major factor in agriculture in semiarid lands, which depend mainly on rain-fed agriculture. Sokoto state in NorthWestern Nigeria ( figure 1 ) has. Nigeria Geographical Journal, 9(June), 1–14. https://doi.org/ISSN 1358-4319
El Hafyani, M., & El Himdi, K. (2024). Literature Review on Stochastic Modeling of Wet and Dry Spells. Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences, 06(03), 241–260. https://journals.bilpubgroup.com/index.php/jees
Ezra, A., & Mayomi, I. (2020). Evaluation of Drought Pattern, Duration, and Intensity in Northern Nigeria. Jalingo Journal of Social and Management Sciences, May, 199–211. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341219595
F. Ati, O., Aremu, K., F. Olatunde, A., B. Abaje, I., & O. Oladipo, E. (2022). Meteorological Drought and Temperature in the Sudano-Sahelian Region of Nigeria under Increasing Global Warming. In The Nature, Causes, Effects, and Mitigation of Climate Change on the Environment. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100108
Frappart, F., Hiernaux, P., Guichard, F., Mougin, E., Kergoat, L., Arjounin, M., Lavenu, F., Koité, M., Paturel, J.-E., Lebel, T., & 1. (2009). Rainfall regime over the Sahelian climate gradient in the Gourma region, Mali Frédéric. Journal of Hydrology, 375(1–2), 1–26.
Garba, M. I., Usman, M. T., Abdulkadir, A., & Ojoye, S. (2018). Analysis of Agricultural Drought Occurrences in Northwestern Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 9(4), 864–867. https://doi.org/ISSN 2229-5518
Gibson, L., Cicione, A., Stevens, S., & Rush, D. (2022). The influence of wind and the spatial layout of dwellings on fire spread in informal settlements in Cape Town. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 91, 101734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2021.101734
Guenang, G. M., & Kamga, F. M. (2014). Computation of the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and Its Use to Assess Drought Occurrences in Cameroon over Recent Decades. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 53(10), 2310–2324. https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-14-0032.1
Hänsel, S. (2020). Changes in the Characteristics of Dry and Wet Periods in Europe ( 1851 – 2015).
Holbert, C. (2018). Nonparametric Trend Analysis. Charles Holbert. https://www.cfholbert.com.
Kamruzzaman, M., Jang, M., Cho, J., & Hwang, S. (2019). Future Changes in Precipitation and Drought Characteristics over Bangladesh Under CMIP5 Climatological Projections. Journal of Water and Climate Change, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112219
Kayode, A. J., & Francis, O. A. (2012). Drought Intensities in the Sudano-Sahelian Region of Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Society, 1(4), 88–95.
Kranjac-berisavljevic, G., & Abdul-ghanyu, S. (2014). Dry Spells Occurrence in Tamale, Northern Ghana – Review of Available Information. 9(No.4), 468–474.: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289777443
Li, H., Li, Y., Huang, G., & Sun, J. (2021). Probabilistic assessment of crop yield loss to drought time‐scales in Xinjiang, China. International Journal of Climatology, joc. 7059. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.7059
Li, Y., Chen, Y., Chen, Y., Duan, W., Wang, J., & Wang, X. (2024). Characteristics of Dry and Wet Changes and Future Trends in the Tarim River Basin Based on the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index Water, https://doi.org/10.3390/ w16060880
Li, Z., Li, Y., Shi, X., & Li, J. (2017). The characteristics of wet and dry spells for the diverse climate in China. Global and Planetary Change, 149, 14–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2016.12.015
Liu, Y., Yan, D., Wen, A., Shi, Z., Chen, T., & Chen, R. (2022). Relationship between Precipitation Characteristics at Different Scales and Drought/Flood during the Past 40 Years in Longchuan River, Southwestern China. Agriculture (Switzerland), 12(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12010089
Mandapaka, P. V., Qin, X., & Yat-Man Lo, E. (2016). Seasonal and Interannual Variability of Wet and Dry Spells Over two Urban Regions in the Western Maritime Continent. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 17(5), 1579-1600. https://doi.org/.1175/JHM-D-15-0100.1
Manikandan, M., Thiyagarajan, G., Bhuvaneswari, J., & Prabhakaran, N. K. (2017). Wet and Dry Spell Analysis for Agricultural Crop Planning. 7(1), 11–22.https://www.researchgate.net
Matazu, M., Sani, B., Mashi, A., Abdullahi, A., James, B., & Adamu, I. (2020). Spatiotemporal analysis of dry spells for support to agriculture adaptation efforts in the Sudano ‑ Sahelian region of Nigeria. SN Applied Sciences, 2(8), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3161-x
Mathlouthi, M., & Lebdi, F. (2021a). Comprehensive study of the wet and dry spells and their extremes in the Mediterranean climate basin of Northern Tunisia. SN Applied Sciences, 3(12). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-021-04834-8
Mathlouthi, M., & Lebdi, F. (2021b). Estimation of dry events duration in Northern Tunisia – Analysis of extreme trends. Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences, 384, 195–201. https://doi.org/10.5194/piahs-384-195-2021
Mathugama, S. C., & Peiris, T. S. G. (2011). Critical evaluation of dry spell research. Int. J. Basic Appl. Sci, 11(6), 153–160.
Mckee, T. B., Doesken, N. J., & Kleist, J. (1993). The relationship of drought frequency and duration to time scales. In: Proceedings of the Ninth Conference on Applied Climatology. American Meteorological Society, January 179, 184. https://www.droughtmanagement.info/literature/AMS
Mehta, D., & Yadav, S. M. (2022). Temporal analysis of rainfall and drought characteristics over Jalore District of S-W Rajasthan. Water Practice and Technology, 17(1), 254–267. https://doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2021.114
Mohammed, E. A., Zhi, X., & Abdela, K. A. (2025). Extreme Weather Patterns in Ethiopia: Analyzing Extreme Temperature and Precipitation Variability. Atmosphere, 16(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16020133
NAERLS. (2021). National Report of Wet Season Agricultural Performance in Nigeria 2021. National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services (NAERLS) Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria www.naerls.gov.ng Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD) Garki, Abuja. https://doi.org/ISSN: 2408-7459
NAERLS. (2023). National Report of 2023 Wet Season Agricultural Performance In Nigeria. In the National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services (NAERLS), Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. https://doi.org/ISSN: 2408-7459 National
NAERLS. (2024). Wet Season Agricultural Performance In Nigeria : National Report. National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services (NAERLS) Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. https://doi.org/ISSN: 2408-7459 National
Nasri, M., & Modarres, R. (2009). Dry spell trend analysis of Isfahan Province, Iran. International Journal of Climatology, 29(10), 1430–1438. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1805
Nastos, P. T., & Zerefos, C. S. (2009). Spatial and temporal variability of consecutive dry and wet days in Greece. Atmospheric Research, 94(4), 616–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2009.03.009
NIMET. (2025). Seasonal Climate Prediction (SCP) (pp. 1–88). Nigerian Meteorological Agency, NIMET, Abuja, Nigeria. www.Nimet.org.ng
NIHSA. (2021). Annual Flood Outlook (AFO). Nigeria Hydrological Services Agency Water Resources Data for Sustainable Development. www.nihsa.org.ng.
Nnoli, N. O., Balogun, A. A., Omotosho, J. A., & Agele, S. O. (2020). Empirical analysis of dry spells during the growing season with respect to the maize crop in Nigeria. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 142(1–2), 525–542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-020-03327-9
Nouaceur, Z., Murarescu, O., & Muratoreanu, G. (2025). The Investigation of Trends and Wet and Dry Rainfall Cycles in North Africa (In Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia) (1970–2023). Geosciences (Switzerland), 15(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15030080
Ogunrinde, A. T., Oguntunde, P. G., Akinwumiju, A. S., & Fasinmirin, J. T. (2019). Analysis of recent changes in rainfall and drought indices in Nigeria, 1981–2015. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 64(14), 1755–1768. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2019.1673396
Oladipo, E. O. (1993). A comprehensive approach to drought and desertification in Northern Nigeria. Natural Hazards, 8(3), 235–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00690910
Otun, J. A., & Adewumi, J. K. (2010). Analysis of Dry Spells and Its Application To Crop Planning in the Sudano-Sahelian Region of Nigeria. Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment. Page 34–43. www.azojete.com.ng
Ozoemene, M. L., Nwosu, A. C., Obikwelu, M. C., & Duru, C. P. (2022). Assessment of the Effects of Dry Spell on the Yield of Maize During the Growing Season in Sokoto State , Nigeria ( 2010-2019 ). JGME Journal of Geography Meteorology and Environment, 5(1), 22–36. https://journals.unizik.edu.ng/index.php/jgme
Qaisrani, Z. N., Nuthammachot, N., Techato, K., & Asadullah. (2021). Drought monitoring based on Standardized Precipitation Index and Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index in the arid zone of Balochistan province, Pakistan. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 14(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-06302-w
Rahmat, S. N., Jayasuriya, N., & Bhuiyan, M. (2012). Trend analysis of drought using Standardised Precipitation Index ( SPI ) in Victoria, Australia. 34th Hydrology and Water Resources Symposium, 441–448.ISBN 978-1-922107-62-6 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251566189
Ratan, R., & Venugopal, V. (2013). Wet and dry spell characteristics of global tropical rainfall. Water Resources Research, 49(6), 3830–3841. https://doi.org/10.1002/wrcr.20275
Ravindran, C. (2021). Use of Rainfall Analysis in the Planning and Management of the Central Institute for Cotton Research (pp. 1–6). Technical Bulletin from CICR www.cicr.org.in.
Salack, S., Sarr, B., Sangare, S., Ly, M., Sanda, I., & Kunstmann, H. (2015). Crop-climate ensemble scenarios to improve risk assessment and resilience in the semi-arid regions of West Africa. Climate Research, 65(2), 107–121. https://doi.org/doi:10.3354/cr01282
Shiru, M. S., & Shahid, S. (2018). Trend Analysis of Droughts during Crop Growing Seasons of Nigeria. Sustainability, 10(871), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10030871
Shiru, M. S., Shahid, S., & Chung, E. (2019). Changing characteristics of meteorological droughts in Nigeria during 1901– 2010. Atmospheric Research, March. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2019.03.010
Singh, N., & Ranade, A. (2010). The wet and dry spells across India during 1951-2007. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 11(1), 26–45. https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JHM1161.1
Sivakumar, M. V. K. (1991). Empirical Analysis of Dry Spells for Agricultural Applications in West Africa. Journal of Climatology, 5(September), 532–539. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005<0532
Svoboda, M. D., & Fuchs, B. A. (2016). Handbook of drought indicators and indices. In World Meteorological Organization (Issue 1173). https://doi.org/10.1201/b22009
Tefera, A. S., Ayoade, J. O., & Bello, N. J. (2019). Comparative analyses of SPI and SPEI as drought assessment tools in Tigray Region, Northern Ethiopia. SN Applied Sciences, 1(10). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1326-2
Tegegn, M. G., Berlie, A. B., & Utallo, A. U. (2024). Patterns and probabilities of dry spells and rainfall for improved rain-fed farming in Northwestern Ethiopia. Discover Sustainability, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-024-00576-w
Tigkas, D., Vangelis, H., & Tsakiris, G. (2019). Drought Characterisation Based on an Agriculture-oriented Standardised Precipitation Index. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 135(3–4), 1435–1447. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-018-2451-3
Tyubee, B. T., & Iwan, M. T. (2024). Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Dry and Wet Spells in the Middle Belt of Nigeria. In Rainfall-Observations and Modelling. Intech.
Umar, A. T., & Ismaila, A. (2017). Analysis of Monthly Rainfall Variations: Further Evidence Of Climate Change In Sokoto State, Nigeria (1926-2015). Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies & Management, 4(6), 9–15. https://doi.org/10.4314/ejesm.v10i6.3
Umar, A., & Adamu, I. A. (2019, January). Occurrences of Droughts in the Semi-Arid and Sub-Humid Areas of Northwestern Nigeria and Their Implications for Rural Livelihoods. In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Water Resources and Arid Environments (ICWRAE 8) (pp. 22-24).
Umar, A. T., Mashi, S. A., & Bako, M. M. (2019). Investigation of Rainfall Characteristics in the Sudano-Sahelian Region of Nigeria (1971–2006). Handbook of Climate Change Resilience, Volume 1-4, 4, 2595–2621. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93336-8_165
Vicente-Serrano, S. M., Beguería, S., & López-Moreno, J. I. (2010). A multiscalar drought index sensitive to global warming: The Standardised Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index. Journal of Climate, 23(7), 1696–1718. https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JCLI2909.1
Yakubu M.M & 2 Daiyabu H. M. M. (2015). Socio-Economic Impacts of Sokoto State Flood Disasters of 2010 and 2015 on the Displaced Persons. FUDMA Journal of Politics and International Affairs (FUJOPIA), ISSN: 2682-5406.
Yildirim, G., & Rahman, A. (2022). Homogeneity and trend analysis of rainfall and droughts over Southeast Australia. Natural Hazards, 112(2), 1657–1683. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05243-9
